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  Demographics of Aging

  Lisa Stebbins, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  The experience of growing older in the 21st century is vastly different from the past. The advancement in technology, medicine, and lower rates of death at birth has allowed for the population to shift in size. The shift is specifically from the baby boomers generation, which refers to the increase in birth rate from 1940’s to the early 1960’s. This generation is aging and in recent years the first baby boomers began reaching retirement age. This segment of the U.S. is the fastest growing, so it is essential to understand the growth of the aging population. This aging group is divided due to its immense diversity.

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  Stereotype Thinking

  Lisa Stebbins, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Stereotypes are widely held fixed thoughts and beliefs adopted by common members of a group, that represent a particular group of individuals or behaviors as a whole. Attitudes people hold reflect in-group beliefs, values, and everyday life choices that are transgressed throughout multiple generations. Stereotypes are intertwined into society, and although many people would like to deny these attitudes, they are implanted on individuals when we are young and occur without conscious awareness. Stereotype thinking is adaptive in nature, which serves the purpose to help people make sense of the world around them, by explaining social events, justifying one’s actions, and assists to distinguish in-groups in a more positive light from out-groups. Stereotype thinking permits people to have the capability of understanding others and simultaneously shapes the way individuals encounter situations.

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  Behavioral Genetics

  Ashley R. Strong, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Behavioral genetics is a field of scientific research that aims to understand how much genetic and environmental factors contribute to variability in behavior. From a genetics standpoint, numerous genes are influenced by the environment, which results in complex behaviors. Additionally, the physiology and developmental history of an individual, along with its environment, can modify genes and neuronal circuits of the brain. Furthermore, evolution and natural selection shape behaviors to optimize survival of the individual. Behavioral genetics is an evolving field that involves a combination of experimental psychology, genetics, neuroscience, and ethology.

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  Cellular Theories of Aging

  Ashley R. Strong, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  There are multiple theories of aging, which include evolutionary, molecular, cellular, and systemic theories. The focus of this entry will be on the cellular theories of aging. There are two main categories of theories of cellular aging, error theories and programming theories. The error theories suggest that aging is a result of an accumulation of errors as an outcome of environmental insults that leads to damage at various levels of the cell. Error theories also propose that imperfect repair mechanisms are a factor that leads to cellular aging. The second category, programming theories, suggest that aging is a genetically programmed event. However, these two broad categories of theories are not mutually exclusive, for example, altered proteins can alter gene expression. Specific theories of aging from the two main categories will be discussed.

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  Environmental Teratogens

  Ashley R. Strong, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Environmental teratogens are external agents that can increase the risk for carcinogenesis, malformations, mutagenesis, or deficient growth in an embryo or fetus. There are two general categories of teratogenic agents, which include errors in genetic processing, and environmental agents or factors. Both genetic and environmental teratogens can lead to embryopathology, but they have different pathologic processes. Errors in genetic processing can lead to abnormal development via gene abnormalities, chromosome deletion, chromosome excess, or chromosome rearrangement. Environmental teratogens, on the other hand, interact with the embryo during development, which can lead to congenital malformations and a multitude of other deficits. Environmental teratogens can include chemicals, drugs, radiation, and other factors.

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  Fine Motor Skills

  Ashley R. Strong, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Fine motor skills are defined as the ability to control and coordinate muscles of the hand for precise movements. These skills play an enormous role in daily activities of independent living, including dressing, feeding yourself, and self-care. Examples of fine motor skills include cutting with scissors, tying shoelaces, and writing. Gross motor skills, on the other hand, are defined as larger movements of the arms and legs. Additionally, fine motor skills typically depend on coordination between the hands and the eyes. The development of fine motor skills is dependent on the development of gross motor skills, cognitive skills, and visual perceptual skills.

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  Nervous System

  Ashley R. Strong, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  There are two major subdivisions of the nervous system: the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Whereas the PNS consists of the nerves outside the CNS. These nerves bring sensory information to the CNS and transmit commands (i.e. motor information) from the CNS to the body. The PNS has three components, the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), somatic nervous system (spinal nerves), and the cranial nerves.

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  Édouard Claparède

  Christopher N. Tirado, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Édouard Claparède was born on March 24, 1873, in Geneva, Switzerland. Claparède studied science and medicine while attending universities in Germany, and France. He later returned home and graduated from the University of Geneva with an M.D. in 1897. After completion of his medical degree, Claparède went to work at Salpetriere Hospital in Paris (“Claparède, Édouard,” 2018). There, Claparède spent a year doing research in neurology with Joseph Dejerine.

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  Career Plateauing

  Victor Tran, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  A career plateau can be defined as a phenomenon in which an individual’s career becomes stagnant. It is imperative to distinguish the two types of career plateaus: (1) content (job content) plateauing and (2) structural (hierarchical) plateauing. Content plateauing refers to a situation in which an individual’s job content (i.e., knowledge, skills, duties, responsibilities, etc.) stops changing. While structural plateauing assumes content plateauing, it also refers to a situation in which an individual can no longer progress, advance, or be promoted within the hierarchical framework of an organization. Career plateauing is not a novel phenomenon; however, it has progressively become a more prominent societal and organizational area of concern. The Baby Boomers in the US have been highly linked to career plateauing as this generation of individuals is living with the repercussions of the economic, technological, and societal developments made by prior generations.

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  Wisdom

  Victor Tran, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Historically, wisdom (sagacity) has its roots tied to religious traditions. From India’s Vedas, to Egyptian proverbs, and to Christian and Islamic psalms, various religions have attempted to define wisdom and have professed the importance of fostering it. While these contributions to the understanding of wisdom cannot be ignored, it was not until philosophers intervened that the world began to attempt to systematically define and analyze wisdom as its own construct.

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  Altruism and Children

  Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Altruism is the combination of willingly and spontaneously helping others. Many studies have focused on the origin of these traits, whether they are innate or learned. Researchers are examining inborn altruism and studying the influence of external forces, such as parental role modeling and prosocial tendencies, that have an influence on children's altruistic behavior (Clay, 2006). Altruism is often associated with altering levels of trust however, in children altruism takes on various forms and definitions with each developmental stage and as more complex interactions with others take place.

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  Blended Families

  Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Blended families are more common than ever. Recent statistics show that more than half of marriages end in divorce, with the eventual merge of two new families. The families go through several stages to create their new family structure. Several models resemble the integration of family members into the newly defined family. In 2001, Braithwaite and his colleagues identified five developmental pathways or trajectories that blended families followed as they become a family: accelerated, prolonged, stagnating, declining, and high-amplitude turbulent.

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  Emotions – The Basics

  Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Charles Darwin theorized that emotions were universally experienced. This idea acknowledged that emotions can be experienced similarly and communicated via many different cultures and backgrounds. Evidence supports the concept that emotions are also biologically based therefore, they must in some sense be universal (Ortony, 1990). Emotions are recognized universally in the bases of social and biological interactions. Darwin also recognized emotions as a trait that is continuously evolving. The basic emotions become more complex and build upon each other via experiences and exposure. In the 1960’s Paul Ekman was able to combine several studies and identify six basic human emotions. These six basic emotions have been recognized by most psychologists. The six basic emotions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. All these factors mature and enhance with age and development.

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  Friendship – Adulthood

  Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Friendship in adulthood is difficult to precisely define. Adulthood brings many life experiences that require different levels of support and needs from friends. Experiences such as marriage, child-bearing, and divorce can attract different types of friendships. Adults who do not marry or are of differing sexual orientations face different experiences making friendships unique. Adulthood can also look very different for both males and females deepening the differences in types of friendships.

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  Systematic Observation

  Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Systematic observation is the process of explicitly defining desired target behaviors and observing them using a systematic set of guidelines. Systematic observation assists in reducing or eliminating bias in experimental designs. The reduction allows for increased reliability and validity therefore, an integral part in experimental designs. This process is widely used in school, home, and clinical settings. The process allows preset rules and guidelines to be to be followed prior to beginning the experiment. The rules and guidelines maintain the design within reasonable boundaries. All the preset rules are inferred prior to starting the experiment.

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  Physical and verbal aggression

  Areti Vassilopoulos and David Reitman

  Publication in press.

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  Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Clinical and Social Psychological Perspectives

  Lenore E. Walker, David L. Shapiro, and Stephanie Akl

  This book provides a broad overview of the history and practice of forensic psychology, illustrating the principles of how psychological knowledge can inform judges and juries in the U.S. legal system with reference to several high publicity cases. The second edition contains new case law and discusses its implications in the major areas of forensics, examining new developments in juvenile justice, malpractice complaints, and reproductive rights, among other topics.

  The authors address specific aspects of forensic psychology within seven distinct sections:

  1. What is Forensic Psychology?
  2. Understanding the Criminal Mind
  3. Can Psychologists Measure Pain and Suffering?
  4. Family Law and Fitness to Parent
  5. Juvenile Justice
  6. Legal Consultation Based on Social Psychology
  7. Practical Tips for Forensic Psychology Experts

  An essential resource for current and aspiring forensic psychologists, the second edition of Introduction to Forensic Psychology serves as a thorough introduction to a complex field, featuring updated cases and related legal developments.

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  Cohabitation

  Shanna K. Williams, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Cohabitation is defined as the act of an unmarried romantic couple (of any sexual orientation) residing together under one roof. The concept of cohabitation is not new and the rates with which it is occurring have been growing throughout the United States over the past several decades. The idea to live as unmarried romantic partners first became popular in Scandinavian countries where, for a variety of reasons, cohabitation remains an accepted and even valued option.

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  Death Anxiety

  Shanna K. Williams, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Just as humans are sentient creatures, aware of their beingness in this world, they are also cognizant of their eventual and inevitable death. With this knowledge comes the natural dread and anxiety associated with being aware that on any given day one will cease to exist. Indeed, one of the fundamental existential conflicts, or causes for existential angst, is the tension caused when an individual is aware of their inevitable death while also yearning for their continued life. Just as anxiety is a natural emotion, so too, is the anxiety surrounding death and its associated existential conflict.

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  Assisted Living

  Rachel Zachar-Tirado, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Assisted living refers to long-term residences for older adults who need extra support and care in activities of daily living while also allowing for some personal autonomy, independence, and privacy. There are around 31,000 assisted living communities in the United States presently, with around one million Americans occupying these facilities. With the older adult population constantly growing, this statistic is predicted to double by 2030. As the elderly population increases, the likelihood for disability and need for long-term care facilities also increases. Many older adults who live in assisted living facilities have either a functional difficulty in their ability to live independently, or a disability which requires the extra help provided by assisted living facilities.