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  Programmed Cell Death

  Skyler Coetzee, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Programmed cell death (PCD) is cellular death that is deliberately induced via an intracellular program. There are two main mechanisms of PCD, apoptosis and autophagic cell death. The most common form of PCD in multicellular organisms, including humans, is apoptosis.

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  Physical Growth, Adolescent

  Alison E. Datoc, Vijay Bajnath, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Adolescents experience a period of substantial growth between puberty and adulthood. This growth spurt typically occurs between ages 12 and 18, and is associated with various physical changes due to fluctuations in hormones. These changes are manifested in an individual’s height, weight, and sexual characteristics, and there is considerable variation between each individual for when these changes occur.

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  Longevity

  Alison E. Datoc, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Longevity, defined as the length of an individual life, is a topic that has been explored by the scientific community as well as across cultures for decades. Health professionals repeatedly encourage individuals to eat more vegetables, exercise more, lose weight, and engage in other health-related behaviors to live a long and healthy life; however, recent literature suggests predictors of extending life are more complex than these recommendations. While there is no specific formula to guarantee a long life, it is well-established that a multitude of factors contribute to an individual’s longevity. These factors ultimately break down into three categories- genetics, disposition, and lifestyle choices.

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  Stress (Personality Types)

  Alison E. Datoc, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Both stress and personality types are multifaceted topics that have been defined in multiple ways. Examining the relationship between stress and personality types is complex; however, literature on this relationship is well-established. While early research on the relationship between personality and stress focused on unidimensional personality traits, such as the relationship between stress and Type A personality, optimism, and hostility, research in this field today takes a comprehensive approach conceptualizing personality in five dimensions. The most widely accepted method of defining personality today is the Big Five model, consisting of five independent factors of personality: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness (Costa & McCrae, 1992).

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  Subjective Well-Being

  Alison E. Datoc, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Subjective well-being (SWB) is defined as an individual’s cognitive and affective evaluations of his or her life. The cognitive element encompasses how one feels about his or her life, and the affective element refers to emotions, moods, and feelings. In simpler terms, SWB represents an individual’s happiness and life satisfaction. The concept of SWB has been discussed for centuries; however, interest in this field has grown exponentially since the 1950s as Psychologists expanded their focus on negative emotional states such as depression to also explore positive emotional states such as happiness and feelings of well-being.

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  Multiple Regression

  Christian DeLucia, Kaleb Pratt, and Ashley Strong

  Excerpt

  Researchers use statistical models to test hypotheses about developmental phenomena. The multiple regression model is a powerful and flexible statistical model that can be used to answer a multitude of research questions. For example, a researcher might be interested in testing whether parent substance use, peer substance use, and lower school performance are risk factors for adolescent substance use. By collecting data on a sample of adolescents, a researcher could use a multiple regression model to provide insights into this research question. Below, we provide a brief, non-technical introduction to the multiple regression model.

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  Information Processing Theory (R.J. Lachman)

  Kimberly Chantelle Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Information Processing Theory is a cognitive approach designed to understand human learning. Several perspectives of this theory emerged from the cognitive revolution in psychology beginning in the 1950s. The invention of the technological age of computers brought with it an innovative way of understanding how information is processed in humans. This lead researcher to draw analogies between the processing ability of humans and computers. The human-computer analogy developed from the foundation that as computers are able to process information so too can humans in a very similar method. Both encompasses ‘cognitive’ processes such as learning or obtaining information, solving problems, making decisions and recalling or retrieving information.

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  Midlife Stress

  Kimberly Chantelle Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Midlife stress occurs naturally through the aging process but can be the result of an external psychological stressor due to loss or change such as occupational stress, health concerns, parental bereavement and divorce. Coping with the psychological suffering associated with these stressors brings challenges throughout all stages of life, but when it occurs during midlife it can be complicated by heightened or unique feelings of bewilderment. For men, recognition of their own mortality and sense of purpose in life can drive the experience of midlife stress. For women, this experience may be derived from feelings of emptiness and sadness, physical changes related to menopause and the challenges of the addition of roles such as becoming caretakers for elderly parents.

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  Spirituality

  Kimberly Chantelle Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  The concept of spirituality is polysemic and adapts different meaning based on individual experiences, culture, and purpose. For many, spirituality means being a part of a structured religion such as attending church, going to a mosque or synagogue. For others, it is a personal journey that involves meditation, yoga, private worship with a higher power or God and reflection. Spirituality can also be a way of seeking meaning through connections with other people, or nature. Virtually, it is a broad concept that allows multiple perspectives to take hold. While the object or belief may differ, the commonality among spirituality suggests a connection to something more significant than the individual self and involves searching for purpose and meaning in life. Spirituality exists as a universal human experience that can adapt and change throughout life through evolving relationships and experiences with the world.

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  Adolescent Death

  Kimberly Ethridge Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  According to recent statistics from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there are approximately 9,500 adolescent deaths per year in the United States, as defined by mortality rates for individuals aged 15-19. CDC statistics also show that the leading causes of death for American adolescents were unintentional accidents and injuries, suicide and homicide. Furthermore, according to David Balk’s Handbook of Adolescent Death and Bereavement, gender and racial differences contribute to disproportionate mortality rates, with African American and Hispanic males finding themselves significantly more likely to be killed by homicide than Caucasian counterparts.

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  Anxiety in Old Age

  Kimberly Ethridge Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Anxiety can be impairing and distressing for both the individual suffering from the symptoms and those around them. Emerging research suggests that anxiety symptoms and anxiety disorders in older adults are just as prevalent as with younger adults, according to the Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA). The ADAA states that Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is the most common anxiety disorder in the older adult population in the United States. It is also common for an older adult to have had a prior anxiety diagnosis, including GAD, when they were younger that has persisted into older age. Fear of aging, medical conditions, death, and harm are also common phobias and can manifest as specific phobias, adjustment disorders, and other anxiety-related disorders, as well as depression and other disorders.

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  Marriage

  Kimberly Ethridge Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Official legislation on the touted “fundamental right” of marriage dates back to the 1800s in the United States, showing the prominence and important that the concept of marriage has on society. Changes in laws and policy have increased the opportunity for marriage to a larger population and as such, research on the construct, its benefits, challenges and statistics has become an area of significant interest. The legal and financial implications of a marriage contract have also encouraged researchers due to the serious and long-lasting implications such a contract can have. Reasons to marry are endless, are highly individualized and can range from affection and love, to financial to necessity in order to obtain various legal rights, as just a few examples.

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  Secondary Mental Abilities

  Kimberly Ethridge Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Mental abilities have commonly been broken down into two main categories; primary and secondary. Primary mental abilities are thought to be large scale groups with similar abilities. Secondary mental ability builds off foundational primary mental abilities of intelligence. Research has suggested that there are six main secondary mental abilities, with the potential for additional abilities to be named or discovered as more research emerges. Expanding research on these abilities has also suggested that they can morph and evolve with age, just as primary abilities related to intelligence.

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  Patriarchal Violence

  Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Patriarchal violence has been described as a pattern of behavior by men perpetuated against women in order to maintain control over women and their behavior. Ultimately, it is meant to oppress them; resulting in women being relegated to a lower position in society. The need for men to exert control over women via Patriarchal violence has roots in one’s cultural, societal, and moral beliefs. Such beliefs pertain to what is considered appropriate and what is considered inappropriate in a cultural context. One of the burgeoning examples of this form of violence against women is the “honor killing”, the killing of a female who has been perceived as having brought dishonor to her family. The emphasis on morality and culture is what differentiates honor killing from domestic violence or other forms of violence against women.

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  Sexually Transmitted Diseases

  Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are diseases that can be passed from one person to another via sexual contact. Some STDs can be treated and cured, while others, once contracted, remain for a lifetime. Chlamydia is one of the more common STDs that both women and men are susceptible to. It is the result of exposure to a bacteria called Chlamydia Trachomatis. In women, the infection can occur in the cervix, throat, or rectum, while men who are infected experience the infection inside the penis (urethra), throat, and rectum. With regard to transmission, Chlamydia can be transmitted from one person to the other via vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse.

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  Marriage in Old Age

  Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  As closely interactive cohorts throughout their adult lives, husbands and wives have been seen to become even closer confidants and partners in older age. These changes may predominate after retirement and the loss of daily work practices and professional systems. Older couples have frequently shared a considerable quantity of time with one another, and subsequently are able to call forth collective memories and years of intercommunications. In addition, older adult couples usually report less conflicts, and appear to acquire more meaning out of their spousal relationships. They also report less psychological distress and rates of illness than older singles. These benefits appear to be chiefly noticeable in later life.

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  Role Transitions

  Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  A role can be defined as one’s position in a relationship or social structure, whereas a role identity consists of the behavioral expectations that are included in that role. While some individuals may view their roles through a fixed set of social standards, others rely on their own subjective perceptions and interpretations of these positions through flexible guidelines. Through the process of a role transition, the literature identifies two types defined as a macro role transition or micro role transition. A macro role transition consists of a psychological or physical change between consecutively held roles. Examples can include career transitions, marriage/divorce, parenthood, immigration, or retirement. A micro role transition is also considered a psychological or physical change, yet between simultaneously held roles. For instance, shifts may occur between one’s home and work roles, roles between parent and spouse, or movement between or within social domains (e.g. school, religious groups, social organizations).

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  Gottman Method Couples Therapy

  Robert Freund

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  Gottman Method Couples Therapy

  Robert R. Freund and Jon Sperry

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  Childbirth Approaches

  Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, and Charles J. Golden

  Excerpt

  There are various approaches to childbirth, apart from the typical approach of vaginal delivery (e.g., typically done in a hospital). Another approach is a cesarean, which can classified as either an emergency or planned procedure. In the case where an emergency cesarean is needed a vaginal birth would have been detrimental to health of the mother and/or the fetus. A planned cesarean is requested ahead of time due to medical indication or requested by the mother. When requested by the mother the delivery is considered an elective surgical procedure, since it was requested without any medical or obstetrical indication. Cesareans by maternal request have become more common recently around the globe. Some reasons for this increase can be because of cultural factors, the changing attitudes of mothers and clinicians, fear of giving birth (i.e., tocophobia).or for convenience of scheduling.